Cultural Geography of the Navajo Tribe Essay Example for Free

Cultural Geography of the Navajo Tribe Essay The Navajo Community represents some of the native Indian tribes in the United States of America. This group just like other Apachean tribes residing in the Southwest is part of the Athabaskan speakers. Originally, they migrated from Western Canada to occupy the largest reservation in the United States. The Navajo tribe practiced nomadic gathering and hunting living a sedentary life in the rugged expansive terrain in the Southwest. Their residences were small and scattered over the land. The date of settlement of the Navajo community in the Four Corners Area is not known with certainty but archaeological findings and researches projects settlement around 13th century.             Surprisingly, a majority of Native American tribes diminished in population with modernization, civilization and assimilation. However, the Navajo tribe has witnessed ballooning population going well over 300,000 people. A duo of Geographers from the Los Angeles’ University of California postulates the growing Navajo population to over 300,000 members to date is as a result of culture and geography. This paper sets out to delineate the cultural geography of the Navajo tribe and what significance this has had on the community.          In Human Geography, cultural geography concentrates on the interactions and patterns of material and non material human culture with the natural environment as well as the human-structured space (Cosgrove, 1994). There are three branches of cultural geography, namely: traditional, new and the more than representational cultural geographies (Lorimer, 2012). In American studies, traditional cultural geography is studied and links to the works of Berkeley University Geographer, Professor Carl Sauer. According to him, the interaction between communities and â€Å"natural† landscape nurtures â€Å"cultural geography†. Researchers following this convention concentrate on the various arrays of human interventions in changing the â€Å"natural† landscape. Therefore, they were mainly interested in validating material culture such as architectures/buildings, industries and agricultural technologies.         Indeed, cultural geography has greatly influenced the increased population of the Navajo community. This is particularly so because the geographical location of the Navajo is isolated. Besides, the prevalence of cultural flexibility in which the Navajos regard themselves as the Dine, blended well with their expansion long after 1492 (Cosgrove, Daniels, 1994). It was around this time that the Europeans started to trickle into North America. Besides, the Navajos cultural flexibility has enabled the tribe to resist assimilation into the larger white United States Culture, four centuries down the lane. Incidentally, most Native American tribes and communities became decimated in population, lost their language, homeland and cultural identity or even disappeared. However, the Navajos are strikingly exceptional. They have retained their homeland, culture, identity and the population continues to thrive.             The exceptionality of the Navajo Community is benignantly evident in their population. The community is arguably representative of the largest Indian tribe in the United States of America. Certainly, the Cherokee Nation, which is an entirely different membership demanding diverse requirements, may contest this acclamation. Nonetheless, the burgeoning Navajo reserve has grown from 3.3 million acres in 1868 to over 17 million acres covering the three states of New Mexico, Utah and Arizona (Goode, 2002).            So what has precipitated this meteoric success?             In their article on the November 18 issue of the Science Journal, geographers Arthur and Diamond postulate that the mere isolation and remoteness of the Navajo Reservation in the southwestern United States played a major role. The extreme outlier of this zone cushioned the community against aggressors such as the Mexicans, the U.S armies and the Spanish. However, it can be remembered that the United States armies rounded up a majority of the Navajo Indians in 1864 and detained them in New Mexico State at Fort Sumner for four years. Still, the extreme outlier and isolation of the Navajo reservation filtered association and interdependence between the Navajo tribe and American and Spanish settlers.          Notwithstanding, the Navajo reservation, featured a rugged, dry and dusty terrain which inhibited white settlement. It was too dry and undesirable for farmland and agriculture making white settlers seek and establish settlements elsewhere. Moreover, the absence of essential mineral resources such as oil and coal at the time of European invasion and settlement of the U.S made the region undesirable much until the 20th century when the minerals were discovered.             Moreover, the Navajo tribe precipitated cultural geographical factors and adopted flexibly while still retaining their cultural identity, thereby circumnavigating the pitfalls of other native tribes (Jackson, 1982). The Navajo tribe changed into new practices in their expansion and occupation of the Navajo reservation. Besides, their inclusive, incorporative attitude of clans, individuals and spouses afforded them cultural identity amidst assimilation threats. For instance, they interrelated cordially with neighbors such as the Apache and the Pueblos, thereby eliminating friction and derailing wars.            There are other historical perspectives in cultural and geographical coverage of the Navajo tribe that has led to their population increase, as well as the acreage of the Navajo Reservation. The tradition of the Navajo tribe is told as a tragic story of victimization as evidently presented in most publications on the American Indian history (Parry, 2011). Peter Iverson, a history professor at the Arizona State University posits the insufficient detail with which the Navajo are regarded. He counters that much more scholastic research must be carried out to reveal the imminent cause of their prolonged stay in power in spite of the massive cultural threats.            Peter Iverson postulates that the federal government’s initiative to rupture the Indians land to derail communal land ownership for individual ownership marked the onset of disappearance of native tribes (Parry, 2011). The Navajo tribe reacted by successfully resisting the government’s capitalism agenda to split their land. This unified the community and ensured that it retained its cultural and geographical identity. Besides, the tribe set on acquiring additional land to expand their reservation resulting to a dramatic expansion of their dynasty. Peter Iverson emphatically chirps in that with the onset of the 19th century the tribe realized that their stay in the reservation was a long run.             The Navajo’s cultural and social adaptations with regard to their topography were flexible. Initially, they resisted the American government’s sponsored education. This is because the education was varied on the extreme and went against the beliefs of the Navajo tribe (Jett, 1992). For instance, the boarding schools were savagely hostile to the Navajo schooling kids. Indeed, this was ingeniously tailored to help rehabilitate the Navajo young scholars into the white American culture (Parry, 2011). However, various cultural, social and geographical developments in the region led to the tribe to flexibly accommodate and adopt new practices. For instance, the 1930 federal program decimated the pastoralist, nomadic and sedentary life in which the Navajo led by taking away their livestock. In countenance, the Navajo adopted the new engagements but yet retained their cultural identity.             Another cultural geographic factor that has led to the meteoric growth and expansion of the Navajo tribe over the years, in spite of cultural assimilation threats is their rich cultural vitality. According to the dual, over a half of the population in the Navajo tribe speaks perfect native language (Jones, 2012). The large population of Navajo members speaking their native language has enormously contributed towards cultural vitality. Nevertheless, the culture is more fragile at present that it has been projected. This is because; with the government sponsored schooling the younger Navajo members cannot speak their language fluently.            Besides, the Navajo tribe is more probable to external influences at present than before. This is because the Navajo reservation has witnessed the construction of railroad and modernized roads skirting through their lands. Consequently, the region is opening up and awakening from isolation well after 1920 (Parry, 2011). Moreover, in spite of the Navajo confrontations with the government in the 1880s, the present influence of Christian Missionaries has actively influenced their culture.            The Navajo tribe pride in their flexibility to adopt and incorporate new features into their culture. This characteristic is well illustrated in their architectural designs, weaving, silverwork, craftsmanship and drawings. For example, among the commonly featured designs in the Navajo arts is the squash blossom pattern. It involves a crescent shaped pendant which is native to the Islamic countries. It is believed to have arrived in the Navajo reservation with the Spanish.             Today, the Navajo culture constitutes a blended old tradition with adapted practices and technologies. The adapted practices are traceable to ancient times and reflect in the tribes mythology. Their oral traditions posit a semi nomadic life integrated with hunting and gathering. As a result, the oral traditions foreshadow perpetual travelling by their ancestors before settling in their current Navajo Reservation. The Navajo today practice farming as an adopted practice to ensure their survival. This practice just like so many other cultures was adopted from the Spanish settlers who settled in their reservation (Parry, 2011). They learn to rear animals such as sheep herding and weaving blankets from wool. Their adaptation tactics have seen the Navajo tribe become dexterous and perfect their skills. Most of the intricately weave patterns in blankets across the world traces top the American Indian Navajo tribe.             In the nineteenth century, the Navajo tribe conducted conventional raids in their neighbors for animals, food and captives a trait that earned them the noun ravage (Parry, 2011). This lifestyle was quite common amongst traditional communities implying that the Navajo tribe merely adopted the practice from their neighbors. In spite of the cultural adaptations, the Navajo tribe reclined to maintaining their traditions. According to James F rooks, the Navajo assumed those practices that enhanced their survival and protection.             Increased settlement of white settlers in the Dine coupled with transcontinental railroad developments stirred a hostile, brutal and violent resistance from the Navajo tribe in their reservation. Consequently, the U.S armies were called upon to quell the situation and detain the agitators. This led to the rounding up of Navajos and their eventual incarceration at Fort Summer, New Mexico. The U.S army applied ruthless combat methods such as the scorched earth policy aimed at weakening the Navajo. For instance, they reduced the Navajo livestock which was their main source of income and livelihood. The army barraged the Navajo out of their reservation striking their most hideous cavern, the Canyon de Chelly. Peter Iverson states categorically that the number of Navajo clansmen arrested and incarcerated as at 1864 totaled to about 8,000. These people had surrendered to the American soldiers due to hunger and thirst. In fact, Iverson posits that they endured the  "Long Walk† along the Pecos River to the fort. Nevertheless, a boisterous and poignantly adamant Navajo population totaling to about 5,000 Navajo members sought refuge in the Gray Mountain, Black Messa, Grand Canyon and the Wupatki hideous points (Parry, 2011).             The long annexation of Navajo led to the 1868, peace treaty signed by chief Manuelito and other clansmen with the federal government of the United States. This allowed the release and return home of the arrested and detained Navajo members. In addition, the Navajo acquired an expansive Navajo reservation stretching over 3.5 million acres of land. It straddles the entire New Mexico and Arizona border line through Utah and on to Colorado (Parry, 2011). The annexation and detention of the Navajo did not alter their cultural practices and identity. The continued herding their sheep and their craftsmanship weaving more and more blankets. In addition, they brought with them additional practices such as silversmithing earlier adopted from their neighbors, the Spaniards. The Navajo jewelry is known across the world and over and especially the turquoise and silver jewelry.             The discovery of an underneath mega oil reserve in Navajo Reservation, in the 1920s, did not assail the tribe. The tribe organized the Navajo Tribe Council to provide strategic and organized leasing of contracts. This council operated independently until 1991 when the federal United States government intervened and reorganized the council to accommodate a trilateral government (Parry, 2011). It constituted of an executive, a legislature and a judiciary similar to the federal American government. This depicts another one of Navajo community’s cultural adaptability and flexibility. The council is duly constituted by a delegation of 88 people representative of 110 communities.          Moreover, the Navajo council and government constitute a Navajo Nation Flag. The colorful emblem depicts the topography of the Navajo reservation represented in copper. In addition, the flag features the native reservation border of 1868 presented in a dark brown color. Still, the flag bears a quad composure of the sacred mountains at their cardinal directions while an enveloping rainbow illustrates the sovereignty of the Navajo nation (Parry, 2011). The solar captured above two animals and cornstalks depict the Navajo indigenous economy. Moreover, an oil derrick featured between a modern house and a Hogan is indicative of another feature of their economy.          In conclusion, cultural geography as a branch of human geography postulates the In Human Geography the interactions and patterns between human culture and the natural environment. This involves the study of the material and non-material associations between the external environment and the people who live in that environment, that is the human-structured space. Culture geography manifests acutely in the Navajo nation. It trails the Navajo tribe explaining their stoic existence, burgeoning and inflationing population amidst occasions that threaten their cultural identity (Parry, 2011). This native community has managed to survive primarily because it practiced flexibility in its culture. The community adopted new elements and practices into its way of life, enriching, safeguarding and advancing its culture and vitality. The Navajo reservation topography has shied potential threats and invasions keeping and retaining the tribe’s identity. References Cosgrove, D. E., Daniels, S. (1994-1988). The Iconography of landscape: essays on the symbolic representation, design, and use of past environments. Cambridge [England: Cambridge University Press. Goode, S. (2002, October 29). Powwow Blends Sacred and Secular: Thousands Attended the First Powwow on the National Mall to Celebrate the National Museum of the American Indian and to Immerse Themselves in Cultural Traditions. (Nation: American Indian Culture). Insight on the News, 8, 13-22. Jackson, J. (1982). Navajo Architecture: Forms, History, Distributions And , (Tucson: University Of Arizona Press, 1981. Pp. Xx+289. $37a50 And $14a95 Softback). Journal of Historical Geography, 8(4), 428-429. Jett, S. C. (1992). An Introduction To Navajo Sacred Places. Journal of Cultural Geography, 13(1), 29-39. Jones, L. (2012). Geography and memory: explorations in identity, place and becoming. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Parry, W. (2011, November 17). Tribal Fates: Why the Navajo Have Succeeded. LiveScience.com. Retrieved November 30, 2013, from http://www.livescience.com/17086-navajo-tribal-fate-jared-diamond.html Source document

Marketing Analysis: Kellogg Cornflakes

Marketing Analysis: Kellogg Cornflakes Kelloggs has persisted in the market as a strong brand in the FMCG industry. Its cereal flakes is a line of product that has been accepted worldwide as one of the most convenient ready to eat meal for breakfast. Over the years people in most countries has consumed more of Kelloggs products than any of its competitors. Annual report of the company shows in late 1980s the company had reached all time peak, gaining a staggering 40 percent in the US ready to eat market and thereby prompting a yearly sales of US $6 billion. In 1990s since the industry in the core markets of U.S and U.K started to face stiff competition with lots of players entering, Kelloggs made a decision to migrate into the Indian market. The market potential was huge since it was a population of 950 millions, out of which 250 million were middle class and was a completely untapped market. In 1994 Kelloggs entered the Indian Market by investing US$ 65 million into launching its flagship product Corn Flakes. However the Indian Consumers found it hard to merge the concept of Corn Flakes with their lifestyle. The most prevalent practice was boiled vegetables and hence the concept of ready to eat failed in India. Even though the first year sales were encouraging, the sales started falling from the second year. It was becoming apparent that people mainly purchased it as a onetime novelty purchase. This study reflects the possible ways in which the brand can be sustained as a successful one in the Indian market. Devising a Marketing plan using the SOSTAC Model: Situational Analysis using SWOT: Strength: High Global Market Share: Kelloggs has 65% global market share according to the audit of March 2010 conducted by KPMG, in the ready-to-eat cereal products and it is also the leading producer in this category. Strong Brand: As a brand the worth of Kelloggs is 13 billion USD at the present time, and even in the period of strong economic crisis it is regarded as one of the profitable brands in US and the European Countries. Some of the brands under Kelloggs are widely accepted. Nutri-gain, Pop-tarts, Kebbler and Ego are just to name a few of them. Large Product Line: In terms of the depth and width of the product mix, Kelloggs has got a wide variety of packaged cereal flakes. It has also stated producing products in assorted categories other than cereal flakes such as choco flakes for children, and also categories such as vegan, certified halal meat, low sodium content and gluten free flakes. Kelloggs also has a healthy food category. Continuous Research to reduce cost: Kelloggs invests a substantial amount on Research and development in order to reduce cost. They have also set up their manufacturing plants in South East Asian countries in order to produce at the expense of cheaper labour and to reduce cost on logistics. Weakness: High Price: A package of 475 grams of Kelloggs corn flakes cost 130 INR which is considered to be pretty high from the Indian perspective. Most housewives who are potential shoppers do opine that this pack lasts for a maximum of 3 usages. This is not regarded as economical from the Indian perspective. Unsuitable for Indian Lifestyle: The general Indian practice was of using warm milk, which was very contradictory to the American concept of using cold milk. Due to the usage of warm milk, the flakes became soggy. Declining Sales: Asia represents only 2% of the Kelloggs worldwide sales. Since its inception in 1994, the countrywide sales have dropped by 25%. Bad relation with Supermarkets: To be in tandem with its pricing Kelloggs should establish itself to sell more through the Supermarkets. However Kelloggs recently had to suffer a lot due to its bad relationship with Supermarkets. For instance Kelloggs products were moved from the shelves of Food Bazaar since it was giving the retailer a much lesser margin than Tasty Treat which is its private label. Opportunity: Globalisation: Due to the effect of globalisation, Indians are now more exposed to the International Cultures. The youth in India now tries to imitate a lot of the lifestyles prevalent in U.K and U.S.A. Increasing level of Disposable Income: Being a growing economy, the income level is rising, hence if Kelloggs can switch over from being a premium pricing brand to a slightly competitive pricing brand, it would be able to extract the money from Indians. Advent of Television Advertising: Due to a continuous improvement in the quality of television advertising, advertisement campaigns are creating awareness and interest towards a brand at a faster. A brand like Kelloggs Choco can be very popular in this way. Threats: Private Label Brands: With supermarkets such as Food Bazaar, Spencer, More, etc gaining more margins on private label brands, it is becoming difficult for Kelloggs to maintain its shelf space in super markets. Local Competitors: Some local and regional competitors such as Crunchy Oats are becoming stronger players due to their low pricing strategies. The Environmental Analysis Using Porters 5 Forces: C:UsersstephenDesktopimages.jpg Degree of Rivalry: (High) Face a stiff competition in Indian market from Local and Regional players such as Crunchy Oats and private label brands such as Tasty Treat. Even global players such as Nestle are giving them tough competition in products within the kids segment. An oligopolistic competition structure exists within the industry. Switching cost is negligible, and most consumers regard switching to be profitable since they get better quality product at a lesser price. Growth is stagnant for the last five years whereas the Industry is expanding. Bargaining Power of Buyers: (High) Supermarkets are continuously forcing to reduce price of products to obtain higher margins, hence consumers are more inclined towards private label brands. Switching cost is again negligible. In certain semi urban and developing areas of the country, people still find it difficult to associate with the concept of consuming cereal flakes in cold milk. Bargaining Power of Suppliers: (Low) The company has a central manufacturing unit in the country and about 20 other units across the world. Raw materials are sourced from the local market. Hence the supplier bargaining power is low. Threat of Substitutes: (High) Other ready to eat and packaged food products are more popular among Indian consumers such as Maggie Noodles. Maggie noodles are more preferred since they are served hot. There is no switching cost involved. Threat of New Entrants: (High) It is difficult for competitors to develop new products in this category since they would require investment and time to develop. Distribution is a major concern. High slotting promotional fees, limited shelf space, and the need to create retail demand are additions to the manufacturing cost. Capital costs are very high since setting up production facilities and distribution chain takes into account a high upfront investment. Objective Setting at different strategic levels: Corporate Strategy: To increase profitability by 23% worldwide by 2011 Business level Strategy: To gain 50% market share countrywide in India by 2011. Marketing Strategy: To become the breakfast meal of 70% of the urban Indian Household by 2011. Developing Strategies: Creating a Growth Strategy using the Ansoffs Matrix: C:Documents and SettingssoumyadeepMy DocumentsMy Picturesuntitled.bmp Kelloggs operates in a country wherein it is an existing brand for the last five years. All products in the product line are known to consumers and a market for such products has also developed. Hence the strategy that Kelloggs should undertake in order to increase its sales is Market Penetration. Kelloggs being an established brand would not have a problem in penetrating the market and increasing its share. The risk factor would also be considerably low. In order to penetrate Kelloggs has to look at two things: Creating a different position for the brand through a better communication and in turn developing a new improved value proposition. Kelloggs must make utilization of cost reduction in order to gain price leadership in the market. Once the product appeals to consumers they will purchase it readily due to the low price. If the company can sell a higher volume at a lesser margin, then they can combat competition successfully. Creating a competitive strategy using Porters Generic Strategies: Kelloggs being an FMCG product has to have an Industry wide strategic scope. However according to the research Kelloggs should practice a combination of Differentiation and Overall Cost leadership. Kelloggs as a brand has a large portfolio of products and each product have its own uniqueness. Hence they should continue to leverage on the differentiation aspect. However a major challenge that Kelloggs faces is its premium pricing, on gaining a cost leadership, it can implement a competitive pricing. This will make the brand more attractive. Tactics employed in order to achieve strategic objectives: Product: Pack Size: Since most of the products within the product mix are widely accepted across the globe, Kelloggs should not change the range of cereal flakes that it has. However in order to increase the frequency of purchase, Kelloggs can reduce the minimum pack size from 475g to 250 g so that it becomes more popular amongst young individuals who live a fast life and stay single. For such group of target customers the basket size of purchase is much small. Hence smaller size packs will attract them to a greater extent. Apart from this value packs must be issued initially to pick up sales. These are packs of 500 g at the price of 475g packs. Packaging: Most of Kelloggs packs do not have the nutritive benefits engraved on them (except for Special K). They only contain a small label showing the nutritional ingredients. Over the recent years the urban Indian population has become more diet conscious. Hence it would be advantageous to engrave the nutritive benefits on them. http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/photo.cms?msid=3190216 Present packaging new packaging Price: Kelloggs flakes are priced higher than competitors. Prices of three most manufactured Indian Brands are higher than most competitors. 475g of Kelloggs Corn Flakes costs Rs 130, whereas its closest competitor delivers 500g at Rs 109. Kelloggs thus should reduce the price. In the recent company audit report from KPMG it has been found that the most highly purchased product, the Kelloggs choco is priced at Rs 125 for a 375g pack, thus making it difficult for a middle class Indian household to avail it. Kelloggs should promote more of this product by reducing the price. Also in order to obtain better penetration in the market Kelloggs should try and sell more through Supermarkets rather than corner grocery shops. Hence Kelloggs should supply more volume at lesser margin to supermarkets and hypermarkets. Place: Internet: One of the medium through which urban customers are purchasing more of their FMCG products is the internet. The advent of online retailing, Kelloggs must try and sell more through online medium. Especially for institutional sales such as to hospitals and school or college hostels, where purchases are made in bulk, Kelloggs should encourage online sale of products. This will help them in reducing the time to deliver their products faster and help them to sell higher units. Also, the negotiation terms with supermarkets, hypermarkets and convenient stores should be laid in a way such that Kelloggs cereal flakes occupies maximum shelf space in its particular product category. The main objective should be to gain maximum shelf space rather than trying to earn more margins per unit. Promotion: The most important element in the marketing mix of Kelloggs is the promotions. When Kelloggs entered India about fifteen years ago, they lacked research of the behaviour of the Indian consumers. They took no notice of the fact that Indians disliked the concept of consuming cold milk, and the flakes became soggy in warm milk. Hence in order to promote the practice of the consuming normal or cold milk Kelloggs should use the television advertising media effectively. This would create a separate value proposition for the brand. For example time can be used as a parameter to create urgency for the brand. A television advertisement showing this concept will create response among customers. Idea- Showing a household wherein every member is rushing for his or her work or school. In such a short time boiling milk and consuming flakes is a lengthy process. Hence normal milk is used and it even tastes nice. The new mission statement of the brand could be Kelloggs: Your Fast BreakFastà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The other forms of communication channels should be advertising hoardings, posters in super markets and magazines such as Graphiti. In order to promote kids products such as Kelloggs Choco the company can organize event promotions through various retailers and also through sponsorship of kids activities and competitions at schools. Sales promotion would also be done throughout the year through the distribution of freebies. Freebies such as a bowl can be given with a pack of 475g of Kelloggs Corn Flakes. This would be of utility in the consumption process and would in-turn increase sales. Process: Distribution is the pivotal processes that should be taken care of in achieving the objectives After the manufacturing process, the distribution chain should be controlled from different centers. There should be four regional distribution centers (RDC) at the four different zones- Delhi (North), Calcutta (East), Mumbai (West) and Bangalore (South). Each distribution center should supply in its particular zone and each distribution center should use the hub and spoke model. All four distribution centers should be interconnected to each other. The distribution model is as follows: Actions followed to achieve the tactics: The head office of Kelloggs is situated in Mumbai. All plan of action should be coordinated from the Mumbai head office and the decisions should effectively pass on across the distribution centers up to the store level where the product gets handed over to the end consumer. Usage of 2009 Financial Statements (Historical method): The budget is planned based upon an analysis of the income statement of 2009. In the fiscal year 2009 as per the annual reports of the company the net income $1,212 million. The net cash flow in the last quarter has been $1230 million and also as per the last quarter the liquid cash reserves of the company is $527 millions. Hence Kelloggs Corporation can invest a high amount in the development of the Indian market in order to bring it to a growth. The total budget allocated towards marketing activities of the Indian market is. The allocated amount is divided into five discrete divisions to carry out activities. These divisions are packaging, sponsorship, advertisement, sales promotion, event promotion and value packs. To map the budget according to the activities of the organisation a GNATT action chart is used. Activity Time Staff Amount Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Packaging 1 Sponsorship 2 Advertisement 3 Sales Promotion 4 Event Promotion 5 Value Packs 6 Gaining Control over the plan: Control can be gained over the process by using two different approaches: Periodic control: A periodic control can be exercised over the plan by performing Marketing Audits from time to time. The company must not rely only on external auditors such as KPMG, they should also gain control through internal audits performed by auditors within the company. Through marketing audits performance gaps should be identified. The extent to which the results vary from the desired targets should be noted and corrective measures should be taken accordingly. Continuous Control: A continuous control should be introduced by maintenance of a Balanced Scorecard customized specifically for stakeholders perspective of Kelloggs.

music in the baroque :: essays research papers

Running head: Compare and Contrast. Maslow versus Elizabeth Cohen Compare and Contrast: Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs versus author of The House on Beartown Road – Elizabeth Cohen Dina L. Rodriguez Saint Joseph College Abraham Maslow – a humanistic psychologist – â€Å"developed a theory of personality that has influenced a number of different fields, including education† (Simons, Irwin & Drinnien, 1987). A concept used in the development of a person as a whole across his/her lifespan, this theory is known as the Hierarchy of Needs. â€Å"It remains valid today for understanding human motivation† (Alan Chapman, 2001-4). Maslow’s hierarchy is relatively known today as a pyramid with 5 basic levels (see diagram), each cannot be built upon or no one person can progress in life until the previous need has been satisfied. â€Å"Humans start with a very weak disposition [infants] that is then fashioned fully as the person grows. If the environment is right, people will grow straight and beautiful, actualizing the potentials they have inherited. If the environment is not â€Å"right† (and mostly it is not) they will not grow tall and straight and beautiful† (Simons, Irwin & Drinnien). The five basic needs are: physiological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem and finally, the need for self-actualization. Physiological needs supersede all in a sense that if we do not have oxygen to breath, food to eat, clean water to drink, and the means for elimination , how else would we be able to grow and survive? It is without these needs that Maslow states we cannot advance to the next level or maintain quality of life (Lois White, 2001). The next level – safety and security – surrounds the need for shelter from protection from the outside environment including inclement weather, stability within the home/family life and the security of both physical and emotional factors that can affect the quality of life in either a positive or negative manner. â€Å"Illness is often a threat to safety because the stability of life is disrupted† (White). The third level – love and belonging – integrates the need for both giving and receiving love. Without this need for friendship, giving and receiving love and affection, how can one possibly develop emotion or a sense of self? This brings me to Maslow’s next level: self-esteem (White). The self-esteem needs are said to be the most influential when the first three needs are met. The need for self-esteem arises from the accomplishments and goals one achieves and the admiration he/she receives from others.

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Essay examples -- English Literature E

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Sir Gawain and the Green Knight was written in the late fourteenth century. Its author was unknown, but he or she was a contemporary of Chaucer. The poem consists of two plots: one is the challenge between Sir Gawain and the Green Knight in a beheading game, and the other is the temptation of Sir Gawain by a lady from a beautiful castle. The outcome of the challenge as well as the life of Gawain is made to depend--though Gawain does not know it--on his behavior at the castle. The temptation is a test of chastity and honorable conduct towards a lord. The introduction of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight gives us a picture of King Arthur's kingdom. It describes the knights and the joy of all Arthur's people. The poem begins and ends with the mention of the fall of Troy. It talks about the warriors who survived and settled in different areas of Europe: Great Romulus to Rome repairs in haste; With boast and with bravery builds he that city And names it with his own name, that it now bears. Ticius to Tuscany, and towers raises, Langobard in Lombardy lays out homes, And far over the French Sea, Felix Brutus On many broad hills and high Britain he sets, most fair. (Norton 202) (Aeneas rescuing his father from Troy) Felix Brutus is the legendary founder of Britain, the great-grandson of the treacherous knight of Troy, Aeneas. Aeneas,from what I found from an outside source, says he is a traitor because he overthrows the king of Troy and negotiates with the enemy (the Achaeans) or Greeks who come into the city. Because of this, the Greeks let him and his family to safely leave the city. In the second stanza, the author chooses to tal... ...equality in a marriage because that is the only way that marriage can last forever. Unlike her "Prologue," the Wife of Bath's "Tale" describes balance in a marriage. A hag is married to a knight and she asks him if he wants her to be old, ugly and faithful or young, beautiful, and unfaithful. He tells her to choose, which gives her the sovereignty. The hag then turns into a beautiful woman, and they live happily ever after. Although in her "Tale," it shows that both people should be considerate of each other in a marriage, in her "Prologue," the Wife of Bath seems dominant instead of concerns for her husbands. Citation Abrams, M.H., The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Sixth Edition, Vol. 1. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. Inc., 1993 Edited by J.R.R. Tolkien and E.V. Gordon Sir Gawain and The Green Knight.Second Edition, Oxford University Press., 1967

Code Of Hammurabi Essays -- History Babylon Essays Papers Ethics Soci

Code Of Hammurabi The people of ancient Babylon lived their lives not how they wanted to, but by "The Code of Hammurabi". The code was the major reflector and shaper in the ancient Babylonian society. If there was something they wanted to do, they had to make sure that it wasn't against the code, because if it was, the consequences were serious, and could mean their life. But without the code, their society would be much more uncivilized and inhumane. Without the code, they wouldn't have been as advanced and as knowledgeable as they were.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The code of Hammurabi reflected many things about the Babylonian society. It reflects that stealing was a very bad thing to do, in more than one way. For example, if someone stole an ox, a sheep, an ass, a pig, or a ship, they would have to pay thirty times the value of what they had stolen, and if they could not repay, they would be put to death. If someone attempted to break into another person's house, they would be killed and buried there, and if a man took a slave and made it his, his hands would be cut off. Honesty was another thing that was very important to the Babylonians. If a woman was accused by her husband of sleeping with another man, and she can't prove that she hadn't, she had to throw herself in the river. This also shows that adultery was unacceptable. For example, if a man's wife were caught with another man, the two would be tied together and thrown in the river. Incest was also forbidden in their society. I...

Decision Analysis Essay

Finally, some typical problem classes are examined and some requirements for prototypical structures are discussed. An introduction to problem structuring Decision analysis can be divided into four steps: structuring the problem; formulating inference and preference models; eliciting probabilities and utilities; and exploring the numerical model results. Prac* This research was supported by a grant from the Department of Defense and was monitored by the Engineering Psychology Programs of the Office of Naval Research, under contract While writing this paper, the author discussed the problem of structuring extensively with Helmut Jungermann. The present version owes much to his thought. Please don’t take footnote 3 too seriously. It is part of a footnote war between Ralph Keeney and me. ** Presently with the Social Science Research Institute, University of Southern California, University Park, Los Angeles, CA 90007, (213) 741-6955. 12 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems titioners of decision analysis generally agree that structuring is the most important and difficult step of the analysis. Yet, until recently, decision analytic research has all but ignored structuring, concentrating instead on questions of modeling and elicitation. As a result, structuring was, and to some extent still is, considered the ‘art’ part of decision analysis. This paper examines some attempts to turn this art into a science. Trees are the most common decision analytic structures. Decision trees, for example, represent the sequential aspects of a decision problem (see Raiffa 1968; Brown et al. 1974). Other examples are goal trees for the representations of values (Keeney and Raiffa 1976) and event trees for the representation f inferential problem aspects (Kelly and Barclay 1973). In fact, trees so much dominate decision analytic structures that structuring is often considered synonymous to building a tree.

Industrial Technology

Industrial Technology, Timber Products and Furniture Study Notes Perry Tappenden Materials Terminology associated with the timber industry comes in many forms; it is used to address other workers, to give a quick response to a question or to make statements shorter and to not go into extensive detail. Examples of certain timber terminology includes; a Crook: Distortion of a piece of lumber, Header: a structural member located between the stud joint or rafter. These are a few instances of terminology as there are many more than this. Timber recovery and conversion is when timber is collected either from deposits or from land and sawn into newer sheets of wood, or burned and used for something else such as firewood, this practice is commonly sought after. When wood is converted it can also be broken down into chips and remade into sheets of ply for use thereafter. * Live Sawing: This gives the most timber from the log; it’s the most simple and cheapest way to cut the log into boards. Timber cut in this method may shrink or warp unevenly. This timber is suitable for construction work, fences and crates * Quarter sawing: The log is quartered lengthwise, resulting in wedges with a right angle ending at approximately the centre of each log. The resulting boards are called quarter sawn. * Back sawing: Takes high quality timber from faulty logs. It allows for the faulty parts to be cut around with little waste. Back sawing is used for floor and ceiling joints as there is more strength in the direction of the growth rings. Flitches and Burls are deformities on the outside of timber, it’s found on the outgrowth on a tree trunk. Flitches are slices of veneer form a tree trunk and are kept in the order of which they were sawn. * Stability is the limit to which timber can re shaped and formed. If timber is stable then it would have been seasoned and therefore maintains its shape without curling. * Seasoning is the process in which moisture is dried out from the cell walls and cell cavities of the wood. Air seasoning is a natural drying method which takes ither a few days or a few weeks in which timber is stacked in well ventilated stacks out in the open. Kiln seasoning is an artificial drying method in which timber is placed in large drying rooms in which controlled temperature and humidity circuate around the boards. * Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC) affects the stability of the timber. As moisture content increases. Timber swells. If moisture content decreases, timber shrinks. Timber should ‘move’ in very minor amounts, so therefore it should be properly seasoned. Timber selection considerations refers to what to consider when selecting timbers, hardwoods and soft woods may be chosen as they both have different moisture contents and therefore different considerations must be put into place. * Plantation timbers come from artificially planted forest or plantation. Timber gained from plantation comes from fast growing trees used for lumber. * Exotic Timbers are timbers that are rare and hard to come by, the timber is a reddish brown and is prized by woodworkers, it is used in wood turnings, handles and other items, an example of an Exotic wood is Allocasuarina Torulosa or known as Forest Oak. Recycling/Reusing Timber is the process of salvaging timber products from old buildings, bridges and wharfs, the timber is then taken to a mill where all metal objects are removed and the the timber is re-sawn and sold to consumers usually as flooring, beams or decking. * ‘Green’ Timbers are wood products that have recently cut and have therefo re not had an opportunity to season by evaporation of the internal moisture. The term applies to wood such as firewood lumber. * Economical Usage/ Waste Minimisation revolves around how to control timber wastage. Scrap timber can be reused in other projects where necessary and therefore saves time and money from buying more timber for other uses. Waste minimisation is how to control timber wastage in order to save money. Waste can be controlled with a waste management plan in which 10% is added to timber to be cut to allow for an affordable amount of waste. * Environmental Issues/Pollution that concern timber production is dust, air emissions and odours and hazard materials including chemicals. Pollution can arise from these things so therefore care should be taken. Another environmental issue is deforestation. Sustainability is about how long a timber will last. Depending on what the desired project is, will reflect that will be selected. A wood such as pine is sustainable but will not last over years like hardwood will. Sustainable timber will have a higher price, but will last longer than most other timbers that are not as sustainable. * OHS Issues regarding timber selection are affected b y the type of timber that is chosen. For example if a hardwood is chosen it must be taken into consideration that it is heavy durable and therefore feet protection must be worn. Also the machinery must be used with caution as it will work harder against the timber. The right timber must also be selected for the job as certain projects require a specific timber that is suitable, if the wrong timber is used it may have an issue such as not being able to support the weight of itself. Manufactured Board are products that are engineered to precise and specific design purposes. Manufactured board is used in a variety of applications such as home constructions to industrial products. The resulting boards are very stable and offer greater structural strength than natural wood building materials. †¢ The Construction and Manufacture of manufactured board involves the same hard and soft woods used in normal construction. Scraps and other wood waste can be used to make manufactured wood also. It’s manufactured for practical uses and also for flat pack furniture because of it’s low cost. †¢ Veneers are thin sheets of timber, thinner than 3mm that are glued onto core panels to produce flat panels. Veneer is constructed with a either a rotary lathe, a slicing machine or a half-round lathe. Using different types of slicing, a different type of grain will appear. †¢ Plywood is manufactured by laminating an odd number of thin sheets of timber, or veneers. The sheets are placed with the grain running along the length of the sheet. The sheet is bonded under heat and pressure with durable, moisture resistant adhesives. When bonding the sheets, the sheets are arranged in a grain direction with the grain at right angles in the alternate layers. †¢ Particleboard is made from the thinnings and trimmings from pine plantations as well as plantation trees. The wood stock is milled in to coarse flakes which are dried and sprayed with a resin adhesive. The flakes are formed into mats with coarse flakes sandwiched between the fine flakes. A number of these mats are placed in a hot press where they are compressed. The high temperature of the press and the resin forms a strong board that is grainless, that prevents termites and borers. †¢ Fibre Boards are constructed the same way as particleboards, the difference between the two is that the particles are pulped to separate the wood fibres which interlock with each other to create the sheet’s strength. Fibreboards are available in plain sanded sheets or veneered in a range of cabinet timbers. †¢ Block manufactured boards have a limited application in the furniture industry, The main use is an alternative to thin sheets of particle board or medium density fibreboard for cupboard backs and drawer bottoms. †¢ Lamiboard are produced by bonding thin wood veneers together in a large billet. The resulting product features enhanced mechanical properties and dimensional stability.. Lamiboard is used in many products including rafters, headers, beams, joists, rim boards, studs and columns. OH&S Issues regarding manufactured boards is that some of boards may burn faster than solid timber, they require more energy for their manufacture than solid timber, the adhesives used may be toxic, cutting and working can expose workers to toxic compounds, Some of the manufactured products are more prone to heat warping when used for exterior purposes, exterior use is also not recommended becaus e the boards soak up moisture. †¢ Glues used for manufactured wood include: Urea-formaldehyde resins (most common, most cheap, and not waterproof. Phenol-formaldehyde resins (Yellow/brown, and commonly used for exterior exposure products. ) Melamine-formaldehyde resin (white, heat and water resistant, and often used in exposed surfaces in more costly designs. ) Methylene diphenyl diisocyanate or polyurethane resins (expensive, generally waterproof, and do not contain formaldehyde). Fitting and Allied Materials-Hardware and Fittings †¢ Screws are on of the most commonly used woodwork fittings, they have a single use of joing two or more pieces of wood together depending on the length of the screw. Screws come in different head types for varying areas of work, The thread on each of the screws differs for the grip on the board as well as width of the board. †¢ Nails are also a commonly used fastener in the timber industry and trades. Nails are used to join together two or more pieces of timber and have many variations. Nails also have many variations for different uses and can be inserted at different angles to strengthen joints. †¢ Nuts & Bolts are used in conjunction with one another to joint together a stack of parts. The joint piese are helf together with a combination of the threads friction, a stretch of the bolt, and compression of the parts. Nuts & Bolts vary in sizes and shapes to fit to the job necessary, nuts bolts as big as 60mm exist on the Sydney Harbour Bridge. †¢ Knockdown Fittings are items of furniture that have the ability to be taken assembled and disassembled any number of times. The furniture has also been made with many different modifications that the owner can perform themselves. These include changing the position of the shelves or even adding shelves in general. Transport and storage of this furniture is also made very easy. †¢ Hinges are devices that are secured to a side of a cabinet and attached to a door or other object to allow the door to open and close. Hinges are available in many forms and open to a 180 degree angle. The knuckle of the hinge shows when the door is closed but there are many types of hinges such as concealed hinges that prevent this. †¢ Handles are an attachment to a door that allows an operator to open and close the door. Hinges are constantly changing and are manufactured by several manufactures. Handles are made out of plastic, metal and even wood. They are a D shape and are screwed onto the door frame. †¢ Knobs are similar to handles in which they allow an operator to open and close a door, they might be favoured or disregarded over a handle. Knobs also come in variations of wood, metal and plastic. Like handles they can be used on doors or drawers. †¢ Staples are used by upholsters for fastening fabric to the wooden frames of covered furniture. Staples can be applies with a staple gun or a pneumatic tacker. Staples can also be used in the assembly of light frames and furniture components as an alternative to nailing and are applied with an air tacker. Drawer Runners are devices that are secured to the interior of a drawer and allow for a smooth operation of the drawer and will last a long life. Some draw runners do not allow the drawer to extend to it’s full depth, however, fully extending drawers have an extra telescopic extension which allows the drawer to extend for it’s full depth. †¢ Table Cl ips are used to attach solid timber tops to tables and other items of furniture, to achieve this result, a groove is cut in the inside faces of the table and the table clip, an S shaped piece, is slotted into the groove and the opposite side is screwed into the top of the table. Latches are a component that allow for two surfaces to connect that also allows for regular separation. Latches are usually used on large doors or windows. They can be made from plastic or from metal and can be secured with a padlock. Latches can also be places on the inside or the outside of a door depending on the levels of security needed. †¢ Catches are a component that is attached to a door and consists of two separate parts, a striker and retainer. Catches can join together via a ball with springs, a magnetic strip on the striker and retainer, or a roller that separates and rolls onto the other. They keep doors firmly closed, yet are still easy to open. †¢ Shelf Hangers are small shelf supports that are available for various applications. Three commonly used shelf hangers are plug in which simply plug into a drilled hole and are made from plastic. Sleeve mounted which is slim mount that fits into a metal sleeve that is first inserted into the hole. Strip mounted supports fit into holes or slots in plastic or aluminium strips which are knocked into grooves that are cut into the wood side piece. Additional Materials Applied to Timber Based Products Glass as a material can be used in conjunction with timber products. A glass door can be added to a cabinet or a glass centre piece can be applied to a door frame on a small or large cabinet. Glass overall gives a more modern look and prevents dust from getting on the shelves. †¢ Metal is used in conjunction with timber in many ways, handles and knobs can be made from a metal and add a nice overall look to the project. Fas teners are also made from metal. Corner covers can also be applied to timber projects such a chest of drawers or any other box. These add a vintage or modern look. †¢ Polymers can also collaborate with woodwork, these can be used similarly to metal materials such as handles and fasteners. Also, like glass, a plastic sheet can be used to insert into a door frame. †¢ Upholstery Materials that can be used in conjunction with timber products is fabric sheets, which can be stapled on to cover a certain section. If upholstery is used, It must be fitted properly. Adhesives †¢ PVA or polyvinyl acetate is a white, ready to use, glue. It is not waterproof but will resist bacteria. It has good gap filling qualities, is on stainable, and non flammable. PVA is the most commonly used adhesive in woodworking burt won’t bond a non-porous material surface such as metal to wood. †¢ Epoxy Resin is a two part glue consisting of resin and a hardener or catalyst. They allow assembly time at up to an hour at approximately 20 degrees. It is very fast-setting and contact with the skin should be heavily avoi ded. It will attach non-porous to porous materials at anytime. †¢ Hot Glue is an adhesive that will glue two surfaces together. The glue is squeezed from a glue gun that heats and melts a stick of glue. The glue itself will bond together porous materials only as solid objects such as metal or glass will not grip the glue when it hardens. †¢ Urea-Formaldehyde are thermo setting adhesives which are hardened by the addition of a catalyst. The adhesive is widely used in the industry. It takes 2-24 hours to set at room temperature. The glue cannot be softened by heat one it sets. Ventilation or respiratory equipment should be used with this adhesive and contact with the skin should be avoided. †¢ Resorcinol glue is an adhesive that has high strength in both dry and wet conditions. It is also resistant to high temperatures. It’s main use is to glue timber that requires immediate repair straight away. The glue withstands tropical and sub-zero temperatures as well as salt and fresh water. †¢ Contact Glue is a synthetic rubber based adhesive, It is mostly used to bond plastic laminate to manufactured boards. Adhesive is applied with a spreader which becomes dry in about 10-20 minutes. The two sheets are brought together resulting in an immediate bond. No cramping is necessary, rather rubbing and smoothing with a block of wood. The adhesive is flammable, highly toxic and gives of pungent fumes. Processes, Tools and Machinery Planning †¢ Sketches are used to help develop ideas, communicate design ideas to others such as the client, factory manager or workshop supervisor. They also help to work out sizes and proportions. Many sketching techniques ar ecarried out in order to communicate through the sketch. †¢ Workshop Drawings are usually of the multi-view type, prepared accurately to scale. Drawing standards are intended to provide consistency in presentation. If a furniture designer prepares a drawing then it should be able to read by all people that follow the same presentation requirements. Material Lists require linear measurements and basic calculations. Timber is sold in metres so therefore all measurements must be counted for and there should be waste allowance which equals to an extra 10% on the final measurement. A materials list should include size of the section, species of timber, type of finish, number of pieces and the lengths required. †¢ Calcula tions that are included in woodwork require addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. This is necessary when setting out details and working out quantities and costs. Calculations are applies to the area, surface area, and waste allowances using formulas and equations. †¢ Costing is a major factor in measurements of timber. For costing it must be made certain that all materials needed for the project are listed and also to keep the unit of measurement consistent, this will prevent confusion from the timber seller and fellow furnishers. Preparation of Timber †¢ Dressing timber involves making the timber flat, straight and square, so that it’s ready for a project. Dressing can be done with a professional machine or it can be done manually using hand held power tools. Dressing timber by yourself ensures that even though timber may have warps or twists they can be compensated for and attended to straight away. †¢ Thicknessing involves using a thicknesser machine to narrow down timber to a desired thickness. The process is by setting the machine to a desired thickness and inserting the wood into the opening where it will be cut down to a thickness that is required. The result will not happen immediately as it will take a while to narrow down the timber. †¢ Face sides of timber need to be well sanded and at the correct measurement. Due to the face side facing outwards on the project, it is important that it is well sanded, and planed to a correct standard so the project does not look out of shape. †¢ Edges on timber must be square on all sides of timber. This must be checked with a square and must be fixed if the timber is not properly edged. When creating joints, all edges have to be square as a defective edge can throw the whole prohect out of proportion. Manufacturing Individual Components as a Part of a Project †¢ Legs Widening Joints †¢ Dowelled Butt Joints is a simple method of widening to form a solid timber top. Dowels are positioned at 150-200mm intervals along the length of the boards. The direction of the growth rings shouldbe alternated for when wide boards are joined. Care should be taken because when one of the boards has movement it will react onto the next board. †¢ Tongue and Groove joints are widely used for re-entrant angles. The effect of wood shrinkage is concealed. Each piece has a slot cut all along one edge, and a thin, deep ridge on the opposite edge. The joinging method has been rendered obsolete with the introduction of plywood. The method however is still used in higher-quality flooring. Rebate housing joints is similar to a butt joint , except it has a second contact surface. The second contact surface allows for another set of nails to be hammered into the joint to make for a stronger joint overall. †¢ Groove and Feather is similar to the tongue and groove joint, however, in the opening a wood feather strip is inserted. This allows for an alternative to the to ngue and groove joint. †¢ Biscuit joints are a quick and easy way to reinforce butt and mitre joints. The oval shaped biscuits fit into place from a hole made by a biscuit joiner. Biscuit joints can basically be used wherever dowel or mortice and tenon joints can be used. This includes framing, widening, and leg and rail construction. Framing Joints †¢ Mitre joints involve cutting the flat side of timber at a 90 degree angle. The joint is usually used for the corners of picture frames and decorative furniture mouldings. The angles are cut with a mitre saw. The joints can be joined with dowel, biscuits or can be joined via mitre halving joints. †¢ Halving Joints have half the thickness or width of the material removed from each part, so that when the opposing sides are joined they will be flush with one another. Corning halving is used for frames. The halving joints themselves can be reinforced with nails and/or glue. †¢ Dowelled are commonly used in frame construction as well as leg and rail construction. Dowels are glued into one piece and the joint is assembled with glue applied to the contact surfaces and the other dowel holes. †¢ Box Pin is also known as a Finger Joint and involves cutting a set of complementary cuts in two pieces of wood, which are then glued. It is stronger than a butt or lap joint and will often form the general overall look of the piece. Mortise and Tenon joints are probably the most common joints used in framing timber joinery and traditional furniture. They have several variations which allow furniture designers to combine creative design with sound construction. The joints themselves can be strengthened with wedges, nails and glue. †¢ Bridle Joints have a third of the thickness of the material removed from the centre of the one part of the joint an d from the outsides of the other part. Carcase Joints †¢ Rebate joint is a recess or groove cut into the edge of a piece of timber. Rebate joints. Rebate joints are stronger than the usual butt joints because they have two contact surfaces which allows for two nails to be inserted if necessary. †¢ Scribed joinery is the technique of shaping the end of a moulding or frame to fit the contours of an abutting member. It is commonly used in skirting and other moulding in a room. Coping is only used for internal corners. All other external corners will be mitred. †¢ Dovetail joints are tapered so that the joint can come out in one direction only. Dovetails cut on one part of the joint fit into sockets cut on the other part. The shapes left between the sockets are called pins. Hand cut dovetails are always larger than the pins, machine cut dovetails and pins are the same size, except for the smaller outer pins. †¢ Housing joints provide more strength than butt joints and are commonly used where load bearings is an important design factor. Housing joints are used in framing, they come in variations such as through housing, stopped housing, and rebate housing. Construction Techniques †¢ Sawing is the most commonly used technique to cut wood into the shapes and sizes as desired. Sawing can be performed with several cutting devices. The handheld saw, a drop saw, a band saw and a table saw to only mention a few. Sawing can be dangerous if safe and correct procedures are not carried during operation. †¢ Drilling is also one of the most commonly used techniques in furnishing. It involves a drill bit, powered by a drill to create a hole in the timber to allow a screw, a dowel, or a bolt to enter the hole for many purposes. The drill bits vary in size and length and this will affect the depth and size of the hole. †¢ Edge Treatments for timber include smoothing out the edges with a plane or using sandpaper with a sanding block. Effects can also be applied to an edge using a router and a router bit that looks good on the project. Other treatments include using a router to make a housing joint. †¢ Nailing and Screwing techniques include collaborations with joints such as mortise and tenon joints to strengthen these. Nails are applied with a hammer or a nail gun and screws are inserted with a power tool or handheld screwdriver. †¢ Sanding is a technique that involves a grainy paper, that slowly scratches away at the wood grains and creates a smooth finish. Sandpaper is sanded on using a cork sanding block. Varying grains on the paper, make the difference between how much of the grain you want to remove and how smooth the timber will come out. †¢ Scraping is an old technique that allows for an extremely fine finish on timber. Scrapers work best on highly figured woods. A difference between sandpaper and a scraper is that sandpaper can suppress the 3 dimensional look of the wood, but scrapers can restore this. Other Construction Techniques †¢ Turning involves a rectangular prism shaped piece of timber that is spun on a lathe and chisels are applied to the surface which cuts away, eventually creating a cylindrical shaped piece. Turning is an effective way of creating posts, or details to an overall project. †¢ Carving is a practice that is applied to the surface of timber where a shape, pattern or any other design is chiseled and carved into the timber using various tools. The practice, when done by hand is very difficult as accuracy and precision is at stake and could ruin the entire surface. Professional machines are available which use precise accuracy to cut out the shapes. †¢ Inlaying involves a shape, usually made from veneer being inserted into a depression that is the same shape as the veneer or contrasting coloured timber. Inlaying can be done by hand but like carving, is a very hard practice. It should be done with an accurate machine. †¢ Marquetry is similar to inlaying except it is made up of more pieces and is much harder process. The results that come from marquetry is decorative patterns, designs and pictures. Thin veneer is also used for this method as it is also easy to sand and shape. †¢ Veneering is an old art of having thin sheets of veneer board covering the outside of timber sides and creating a nice look that appears like it’s a full piece of timber. Veneer boards are stuck to plywood boards to create a nice finish from the outside. †¢ Parquetry is a similar method to Marquetry except it form simple geometric shapes, forming tiled patterns that would cover the floor. Aside from veneer, other timbers can be used such as oak, walnut, cherry, can be enployed. Even expensive timber such as mahogany can be used. †¢ Laminating is a technique that uses a multi synthetic that is fused in a lamination process. Laminating simulates timber with a photographic applique under a clear plastic layer. Laminated flooring is most commonly used as this is cheap, more durable than carpet and looks like the floor is made from proper timer. †¢ Bending is a technique that is applied to that is applied to sheets of timber when a bend is necessary, this could be for a ramp or any other similar device. T bend sheets, the boards are steamed and the pores in the timber become soft and allow for it to bent into a curved shape. †¢ Routing is a process for creating a recess into pieces of timber to allow for a housing joint or any other timber to be inserted to create a strong joint. Routing can also be applied to the edges of timber for corner work that involves joints. Construction Techniques Using Manufactured Boards †¢ Economical Sheet Layout is the process of choosing manufactured boards that have minimal surface defects. Its best to choose the most economical sheets when they are all laid out. Using proper veneer and pine combinations also help with the outcomes of plywood economics. †¢ Cutting Sheet Material can be carried out in a number of ways. Manufactured sheets can be cut out using a table saw or a circular saw. A saw guide helps with a circular saw. Cutting sheet material is an easy process but still must be carried out responsibly and properly. †¢ Handling Sheet Material should be like handling most other timber in the industry. It should be held close to the body where it is safe and won’t be dropped. If assistance is required for lifting heavy or rigid sheet materials then help should be requested immediately. †¢ Assembly of Components should be carried out with proper joints and with proper components for assembly. Components used for manufactured boards include screws and nails and glue, these are usually joined with butt joints. Assembly of Components †¢ Test, Fit and Check Joints is a process that must be carried out before proper gluing of a project. The joints should all be joined without glue to be tested if they fit. All joints should then be checked with a square at the corners. If it is not accurate, then some chiseling or filling should be carried out. †¢ Dry Cramp is a technique that should be carried out before gluing. The frame or project should be fitted into the cramp so that when the glue is applied it can quickly be placed into the cramp without a messy job. Use of Cramps is a sometimes difficult procedure but can be made easy when all steps are followed. The cramp should be dry tested as described above and then glued and tightened. When tightening cramps, they should be tightened evenly. Parallel clamp should be placed in the middle to counteract the outer clamps making the board bend upwards. †¢ Testing for Square and Flatness should be carried out using a square on the corne rs. If the joints are not square, then the cramps should be loosened and the frame or project be readjusted. To check the flatness should be done with the side of a ruler or with a flat piece of timber. Its best to check the flatness to avoid the frame or timber going in wind. Finishing †¢ Preparation for staining involves the process of setting up the timber with a work table and brush and brushing on the stain to the timber in all the desired areas where necessary. †¢ Staining gives the wood a more professional look and makes the wood look more expensive. †¢ Filling fills in the pores of the timber of open grained or textured timber to provide a smoother surface to build up the finishing material. Oils consist of oil-soluble dyes dissolved in oils such as turpentine. Finishes can range in appearance from a deep, shiny glass-like look to a dull surface which reflects very little light. †¢ Shellac is used for traditional French polishing, It’s a natural resin that is applied with a polishing pad and gradually builds up the body of coating. †¢ Nitro-Cellulose Lacquer is a spray on finish that needs to be thinned down and dries in a few minutes. †¢ Environmental Issues that concern polishing are the fumes that the finishes give off, while not entirely harmful to the human body, these do inhabit the air and could affect the surrounding environment. Ii would also require a lot of energy to make the finishes also. †¢ Industrial Processes that are associated with finishing is the proper use of PPE, this would include gloves, and possibly a face mask, depending on the users intake of the fumes from the finish. It would also be necessary to work in a well ventilated room to ensure that the fumes to not fill up and enclosed room. Other processes include leaving the timber a good amount of time to dry before another coat is added and to follow all instructions on the finishes container such as application and preparation.